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RUSSIAN ARCHITECTURAL PERIODS 

A RESOURCE FOR THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY AND THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE IN RUSSIA

RUSSIAN ARCHITECTURE

Russian architecture follows a tradition whose roots lie in early Russian wooden architecture (inclusive of various indigenous elements) and in the architecture of Kyivan Rus' with its centres in Veliky Novgorod and Kyiv. From the Rus' era onward, the Byzantine Empire influenced Russia's architecture and culture. In other phases of Russian history, the architecture developed independently and was characterised by national and local features. After the fall of Kyiv, Russian architectural history continued in the principalities of Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod, and the succeeding states of the Tsardom of Russia. The great churches of Kyivan Rus', built after the adoption of Christianity in 988 A.D., were the first examples of monumental architecture in the East Slavic region. Early Eastern Orthodox churches were mainly built from wood, with their simplest form known as a cell church. Cathedrals often featured many small domes, which has led some art historians to infer how the pagan Slavic temples may have appeared.

Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod (1044–52 A.D.), on the other hand, expressed a new style that exerted a strong influence on Russian church architecture. Its austere, thick walls, small, narrow windows have much in common with the Romanesque architecture of Western Europe. The shape of the onion domes is a distinct feature of Russian architecture. Further departures from the Byzantine model are evident in succeeding Novgorod cathedrals: St Nicholas' (1113 A.D.), St Anthony's (1117–19 A.D.), and St George's (1119 A.D.). The secular architecture of Kyivan Rus' has barely survived. Until the 20th century, only the Golden Gates of Vladimir, despite much 18th-century restoration, could be regarded as an authentic monument of the pre-Mongol period. During the 1940s, archaeologist Nikolai Voronin discovered the well-preserved remains of Andrei Bogolyubsky's palace in Bogolyubovo (dating from 1158 to 1165 A.D.).

The city of Novgorod preserved its architecture during the Mongol invasion. The first churches were commissioned by princes; after the 13th century, merchants, guilds, and communities began commissioning cathedrals. The citizens of 13th-century Novgorod were noted for their shrewdness, diligence, and prosperity, and they expanded from the Baltic to the White Sea. The architecture in Novgorod did not begin to flourish until the turn of the 12th century. The Novgorod Sophia Cathedral was modelled after the original Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv; it is similar in appearance but smaller, narrower, and (in a development of North Russian architecture), onion-shaped domes replace cupolas. Construction was supervised by workmen from Kyiv, who also imported bricks. The primary building materials were fieldstone and undressed limestone blocks. It is said that the interiors were painted in frescoes, which have now vanished. The doors were made of bronze.

The Katholikon of Yuriev Monastery was commissioned in 1119 A.D. by Prince Vsevolod of Pskov. The architect was known as Master Peter, one of the few architects recorded in Russia at the time. The exterior is characterised by narrow windows and double-recessed niches, which proceed in a rhythm across the façade; the interior walls reach a height of 20 metres (66 ft). Its pillars are closely spaced, emphasising the height of the vaulted ceilings. The interior was covered in frescoes from the prince’s workshops, including some of the rarest Russian paintings of the time.

The Church of the Transfiguration of the Saviour was a memorial to Ilya Muromets. During the Mongol invasion, Ilya was reputed to have saved the city; the church was built in his honour on Elijah Street in 1374 A.D. During this time, the city-state of Novgorod established a separate district for the princes, subdividing the city into a series of streets, one of which still houses the church. The church windows are more detailed, the niches deeper, and the dome (seen in larger cathedrals) is augmented by a pitched roof.

Another church closely resembling the Church of the Transfiguration is the Church of Saints Peter and Paul in Kozhevniki. It was constructed in 1406 A.D., and the primary difference is in building material. The detail is focused on the west and south facades. New ornamental motifs in the brick appear at this time. Brick was also used for the pilasters, which delineate the façade. It was originally plastered but underwent restoration after it was damaged during World War II. Its apse points towards the river, which provides a welcome sight for ships approaching from the Baltic. The shingled roof resembles the bochka roofs popular at the time. The walls were built from local quarry stone, which contrasted with the red bricks. The ground plan of the church is almost square with four pillars, one apse, and one dome

PRE-CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE (BEFORE 988 A.D.)

Russian architecture blends Byzantine and pagan styles. Some characteristics of Slavic pagan temples include exterior galleries and multiple towers. Between the 6th and the 8th centuries, the Slavs built fortresses, called grods, which were tightly constructed wooden fortifications.

KYIVAN RUS CHRISTIAN PERIOD (988–1230 A.D.)

The architecture of Kyivan Rus' derives from the medieval state of Kyivan Rus', which incorporated parts of modern Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus and was centred on Kyiv and Novgorod. Its architecture dates to the earliest period of Russian architecture, drawing on Byzantine foundations but incorporating extensive innovations and features. Most remains are Russian Orthodox churches or parts of city gates and fortifications.

After the disintegration of Kyivan Rus' followed by the Mongol invasion in the first half of the 13th century, the architectural tradition continued in the principalities of Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volhynia, and eventually had a direct influence on the Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian architecture. The Old Russian architecture of churches originates from the pre-Christian Slavic "zodching" (Russian: Зодчество - construction).

CHURCH ARCHITECTURE

The great churches of Kyivan Rus', built after the adoption of Christianity in 988 A.D., were the first examples of monumental architecture in the East Slavic lands. The architectural style of the Kyivan state, which quickly established itself, was strongly influenced by Byzantine architecture. Early Eastern Orthodox churches were mainly made of wood, with the simplest form of the church becoming known as a cell church.

Major cathedrals often featured scores of small domes, leading some art historians to conclude that pagan Slavic temples should have looked like them. The 10th-century Church of the Tithes in Kyiv was the first cult building to be made of stone. The earliest Kyivan churches were built and decorated with frescoes and mosaics by Byzantine masters. Another great example of an early church of Kyivan Rus' was the thirteen-domed Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv (1037–54 A.D.), built by Yaroslav the Wise. Much of its exterior has been altered over time, spreading across the area and eventually acquiring 25 domes.

Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod (1045–1050 A.D.),[citation needed] on the other hand, expressed a new style that exerted a strong influence on Russian church architecture. Its austere thick walls, small narrow windows, and helmeted cupolas have much in common with the Romanesque architecture of Western Europe. Even further departure from Byzantine models is evident in succeeding cathedrals of Novgorod: Saint Nicholas's (1113 A.D.), Saint Anthony's (1117–19 A.D.), and Saint George's (1119 A.D.). Along with cathedrals, the architecture of monasteries of these times is. The 12th–13th centuries were a period of feudal division of Kyivan Rus into princedoms, which were in nearly permanent feud, with the multiplication of cathedrals in emerging princedoms and the courts of local princes (knyazes).

By the end of the 12th century, the country's division was final, and new centres of power adopted the Kyivan style and adapted it to their traditions. In the northern principality of Vladimir-Suzdal, the local churches were built of white stone with the help of Friedrich Barbarossa's Romanesque masters, whilst their wall statuary was elaborately carved by craftsmen from Georgia.

The Suzdal style is also known as "white-stone architecture" ("белокаменное зодчество"). The first white-stone church was the St. Boris and Gleb Church, commissioned by Yuri Dolgoruky, a church-fortress in Kideksha near Suzdal, at the supposed place of the stay of knyazes Boris and Gleb on their pilgrimage to Kyiv. The white-stone churches mark the highest point of pre-Mongolian Rus' architecture. The most important churches in Vladimir are the Assumption Cathedral (built 1158–60 A.D., enlarged 1185–98 A.D., frescoes 1408 A.D.) and Saint Demetrios Cathedral (built 1194–97 A.D.). In the western splinter of the Kingdom of Halych-Volhynia, churches in a traditional Kyivan style were built for some time, but eventually, the style began to drift towards Central European Romanesque tradition. Celebrated as these structures are, the contemporaries were even more impressed by the churches of Southern Rus', particularly the Svirskaya Church of Smolensk (1191–94 A.D.). As southern structures were either ruined or rebuilt, the restoration of their original appearance has been a source of contention among art historians. The most memorable reconstruction is the Pyatnitskaya Church (1196–99 A.D.) in Chernihiv, by Peter Baranovsky.

SECULAR ARCHITECTURE

There were very few examples of secular (non-religious) architecture in Kyivan Rus. Golden Gates of Vladimir, despite much 18th-century restoration, could be regarded as an authentic monument of the pre-Mongolian period. In Kyiv, the country's capital, no secular monuments survived, aside from fragments of walls and gate ruins. The Golden Gates of Kyiv were completely destroyed over the years, leaving only ruins. In the 20th century, a museum was erected above the ruins; it is a mirror image of the gates of the Kyivan Rus period, but it is not a monument of the time. One of the best examples, the fortress of Belgorod Kievskiy, lies beneath the ground, awaiting major excavation. In the 1940s, the archaeologist Nikolai Voronin discovered the well-preserved remains of Andrei Bogolyubsky's palace in Bogolyubovo, dating from 1158–65 A.D.

EARLY MUSCOVITE PERIOD (1230–1530)

The Mongols looted the country so thoroughly that even capitals (such as Moscow or Tver) could not afford new stone churches for more than half a century. Novgorod and Pskov, however, escaped the Mongol yoke and evolved into successful commercial republics; dozens of medieval churches (from the 12th century onward) have been preserved in these towns. The churches of Novgorod (such as the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyina Street, built in 1374 A.D.) are steep-roofed and roughly carved; some contain magnificent medieval frescoes.

The tiny, picturesque churches of Pskov feature many unique elements: corbel arches, church porches, exterior galleries, and bell towers. All these features were introduced by Pskov masons to Muscovy, where they constructed numerous buildings during the 15th century (including the Church of the Deposition of the Robe of the Moscow Kremlin, 1484 A.D., and the Church of the Holy Spirit of the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius, built in 1476 A.D.). The 14th-century churches of Muscovy are few, and their ages are disputed. Typical monuments – found in Nikolskoe (near Ruza, possibly from the 1320s) and Kolomna (possibly from the second decade of the 14th century) – are diminutive single-domed fortified churches, built of roughly hewn ("wild") stone and capable of withstanding brief sieges. By the construction of the Assumption Cathedral in Zvenigorod (possibly in 1399 A.D.),

Muscovite masons regained the mastery of pre-Mongol builders and solved some of the construction problems which had puzzled their predecessors. Signature monuments of early Muscovite architecture include the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius (1423 A.D.), the Savvin Monastery of Zvenigorod (possibly 1405 A.D.), and St. Andronik Monastery in Moscow (1427 A.D.). By the end of the 15th century, Muscovy was so powerful a state that its prestige required magnificent, multi-domed buildings on a par with the pre-Mongol cathedrals of Novgorod and Vladimir. They reproduced ancient Vladimir structures in three large cathedrals in the Moscow Kremlin and decorated them with Italian Renaissance motifs. These ambitious Kremlin cathedrals (among them the Dormition and Archangel Cathedrals) were imitated throughout Russia during the 16th century, with new edifices tending to be larger and more ornate than their predecessors (for example, the Hodegetria Cathedral of Novodevichy Convent from the 1520s).

Apart from churches, many other structures date from Ivan III's reign. These include fortifications (Kitai-gorod, the Kremlin (its current towers were built later), Ivangorod), towers (Ivan the Great Bell Tower), and palaces (the Palace of Facets and the Uglich Palace). The number and variety of extant buildings may be attributed to the fact that Italian architects persuaded Muscovites to abandon prestigious, expensive, and unwieldy limestone in favour of much cheaper, lighter brick as the principal construction material.

MIDDLE MUSCOVITE PERIOD (1530–1630 A.D.)

In the 16th century, the key development was the introduction of the tented roof in brick architecture. Tent-like roof construction is thought to have originated in northern Russia,[citation needed] since it prevented snow from piling up on wooden buildings during long winters. In wooden churches (even modern ones), this type of roof has been very popular. The first tent-like brick church is the Ascension Church in Kolomenskoe (1531 A.D.), designed to commemorate the birth of Ivan the Terrible. Its design invites speculation; this style (never found in other Orthodox countries) likely symbolised the ambition of the nascent Russian state and the liberation of Russian art from Byzantine canons after the Fall of Constantinople to the Turks. Tented churches were popular during the reign of Ivan the Terrible. Two prime examples dating from his reign employ several tents of exotic shapes and colours, arranged in an intricate design: the Church of St John the Baptist in Kolomenskoye (1547 A.D.) and Saint Basil's Cathedral on Red Square (1561 A.D.). The latter church unites nine tented roofs in a striking circular composition.

LATE MUSCOVITE PERIOD (1630–1712 A.D.)

After the Time of Troubles, the church and state were bankrupt, unable to finance any construction works; an initiative was taken by rich merchants in Yaroslavl, on the Volga. During the 17th century, they built many large cathedral-type churches with five onion-like domes, surrounded by tents of bell towers and aisles. At first, the churches' composition was sharply asymmetrical, with different parts balancing each other on the "scale-beam" principle (e.g., the Church of Elijah the Prophet, 1647–50 A.D.). Subsequently, the Yaroslavl churches were strictly symmetrical, with domes taller than the building itself, and amply decorated with polychrome tiles (e.g., the Church of John the Chrysostom on the Volga, 1649–54 A.D.). A zenith of Volga architecture was reached in the Church of St John the Baptist (built 1671–87 A.D.) – the largest in Yaroslavl, with 15 domes and more than 500 frescoes. The brick exterior of the church, from the cupolas down to the tall porches, was elaborately carved and decorated with tiles.

The 17th-century Moscow churches are also profusely decorated, but they are much smaller. Earlier in the century, the Muscovites still favoured tent-like constructions. The chief object of their admiration was the "Miraculous" Assumption Church in Uglich (1627 A.D.): it had three graceful tents in a row, reminiscent of three burning candles. This composition was extravagantly employed in the Hodegetria Church of Vyazma (1638 A.D.) and the Nativity Church at Putinki, Moscow (1652 A.D.). Assuming that such constructions ran counter to the traditional Byzantine type, the Patriarch Nikon declared them uncanonical. He encouraged the construction of elaborate ecclesiastical residences (such as the Rostov Kremlin on Nero Lake, which featured five tall churches, many towers, palaces, and chambers). Nikon designed his new residence at the New Jerusalem Monastery, which was dominated by a rotunda-like cathedral, the first of its type in Russia. Since the tents were banned, Muscovite architects had to replace them with successive rows of corbel arches (kokoshniks), and this decorative element became a hallmark of 17th-century Moscow's flamboyant style.

An early example of the flamboyant style is the Kazan Cathedral on Red Square (1633–36 A.D.). By the end of the century, more than 100 churches in the fiery style were erected in Moscow, and perhaps as many again in the neighbouring region. Among the more splendid examples are the Moscow churches of the Holy Trinity at Nikitniki (1653 A.D.), St Nicholas at Khamovniki (1682 A.D.), and Holy Trinity at Ostankino (1692 A.D.). Probably the most representative flamboyant-style structure was the Church of St Nicholas (the "Grand Cross") in the Kitai-gorod, brutally destroyed at Stalin's behest. As Russian architecture degenerated into purely decorative, it was also influenced by the Polish and Ukrainian Baroque.

The first Baroque churches were small chapels built on the Naryshkin family's estates near Moscow, so the name of Naryshkin Baroque is often applied to this style. Some of these churches are tower-like, with cubic and octagonal floors placed atop each other (the Saviour Church at Ubory, 1697 A.D.); others have a ladder-like composition, with a bell tower rising above the church itself (the Intercession Church at Fili, 1695 A.D.). The Baroque and flamboyant-style decoration is often so profuse that the church seems to be the work of a jeweller rather than a mason (e.g., the Trinity Church at Lykovo, 1696 A.D.).

Perhaps the most delightful example of the Naryshkin Baroque was the multi-domed Assumption Church on Pokrovka Street in Moscow (built 1696–99 A.D., demolished 1929). Its architect was also responsible for the "red and white" reconstruction of several Moscow monastic structures, notably the Novodevichy Convent and the Donskoy Monastery. The Baroque style quickly spread throughout Russia, gradually replacing more traditional and canonical architecture. The Stroganov merchants sponsored the construction of majestic Baroque structures in Nizhny Novgorod (the Nativity Church, 1703 A.D.) and in the remote Solvychegodsk (the Presentation Cathedral, 1693 A.D.). During the first decades of the 18th century, some remarkable Baroque cathedrals were built in towns such as Kazan, Solikamsk, Verkhoturye, Tobolsk, and Irkutsk.

Also interesting are the traditional wooden churches by carpenters of the Russian North. Working without hammer and nails, they constructed such bizarre structures as the 24-domed Intercession Church at Vytegra (1708 A.D., burnt down in 1963) and the 22-domed Transfiguration Church at Kizhi (1714 A.D.).

IMPERIAL RUSSIA (1712–1917)

Peter I of Russia moved the capital from Moscow to St Petersburg, which he planned to design in the manner usually called Petrine Baroque. Its major monuments include the Peter and Paul Cathedral and Menshikov Palace. During the reign of Empress Anna and Elizaveta Petrovna, Russian architecture was dominated by the luxurious Baroque style of Bartolomeo Rastrelli; Rastrelli's signature buildings include the Winter Palace, the Catherine Palace, and the Smolny Cathedral. Other distinctive monuments of the Elizabethan Baroque are the bell tower of the Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra and the Red Gate. Catherine the Great dismissed Rastrelli and patronised neoclassical architects invited from Scotland and Italy.

Some representative buildings from her reign are the Alexander Palace (by Giacomo Quarenghi) and the Trinity Cathedral of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra (by Ivan Starov). During Catherine's reign, the Russian Gothic Revival style was developed by Vasily Bazhenov and Matvei Kazakov in Moscow. Alexander I of Russia favoured the Empire style, which became de facto the only style of his period, evidenced by the Kazan Cathedral, the Admiralty building, the Bolshoi Theatre, St Isaac's Cathedral, and the Narva Triumphal Gates in Saint Petersburg. The Empire style's influence was even greater in Moscow, which had to rebuild thousands of houses destroyed by the 1812 A.D. fire. In the 1830s, Nicholas I eased architectural regulation, opening the trade to several incarnations of early eclecticism.

Konstantin Ton's pseudo-Russian designs became the preferred choice in church construction (Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, 1832–1883 A.D.), while his public buildings followed Renaissance tradition, exemplified in the Great Kremlin Palace (1838–49 A.D.) and the Kremlin Armoury (1844–1851 A.D.). The subsequent reigns of Alexander II and Alexander III promoted a Russian Byzantine Revival in church architecture, while civil construction followed the same variety of eclecticism common across Europe; this featured ever-growing national revival trends, vernacular and imaginary. Between 1895 A.D. and 1905, architecture was briefly dominated by Russian Art Nouveau, most active in Moscow (Lev Kekushev, Fyodor Schechtel, and William Walcot). While it remained a popular choice until the outbreak of World War I in 1914, it gave way to the Russian neoclassical revival, which merged the Empire style and Palladian tradition with contemporary construction technology.

Kirov District Soviet Building. 18 Stachek Prospekt. St. Petersburg, Russia. by architect Noi Trotski. 1934

POST-REVOLUTION (1917–1932)

In the first year of Soviet rule, all architects refusing to emigrate (and the new generation) denounced any classical heritage in their work and began to propagate formalism, the most influential of all Revivalist themes. Great plans were drawn for large, technically advanced cities. The most ambitious of all was the Monument to the Third International, planned in 1919 by Vladimir Tatlin (1885–1953), а 400-meter spiral, wound around a tilted central axis with rotating glass chambers. Impossible in real life, the Tatlin Tower inspired a generation of Constructivist architects in Russia and abroad. The Shukhov Tower, rising 160 metres (520 ft) above Moscow, was completed in 1922.

According to the initial plans, the hyperboloid tower by Vladimir Shukhov with a height of 350 metres (1,150 ft) had an estimated mass of 2,200 tonnes (2,200,000 kg), while the Eiffel Tower in Paris (with a height of 350 metres (1,150 ft)) weighs 7,300 tonnes (7,300,000 kg). Residents of apartment buildings were sealed off and replaced by new tenants.

The so-called kommunalka became the most common type of accommodation for the residents of large cities. In each communal apartment, one room belonged to one family, while the bathroom, toilet, and kitchen were shared. Such a scheme was widespread until the mid-1950s, and in some cities, there are more communal apartments. At the same time, in the 1930s, senior people began building houses with separate-bedroom apartments, where one family had the whole apartment. An example of such a house is the House on the Embankment (Dom na Naberezhnaya) in Moscow, built in 1927–1931. An important priority during the post-revolutionary period was the mass reconstruction of cities. In 1918, Alexey Shchusev (1873–1949) and Ivan Zholtovsky founded the Mossovet Architectural Workshop, where the complex planning for the reconstruction of Moscow as a new Soviet capital was undertaken. The workshop employed young architects who later emerged as avant-garde leaders.

At the same time, architectural education, concentrated in the Vkhutemas, was divided between revivalists and modernists. In 1919, Petrograd saw a similar planning and educational setup, headed by experienced revivalist Ivan Fomin (1872–1936). Other cities followed suit, and the work carried out there led to dramatic changes in the traditional layout of Russian cities. The first large-scale development templates (generally a plan) were drawn there. The city was planned as a series of new wide avenues, massive public structures, and improvements to workers' housing with heat and plumbing. The first apartment building of this period was completed in 1923, followed by a surge of public-housing construction in 1925–1929.

In Petrograd from 1917 to 1919, the first example of the new style was built on the Field of Mars – a monument, "Strugglers of the Revolution", designed by Lev Rudnev (1886–1956). This complex consisted of a series of simple, expressive granite monoliths and became the focal point for further development in Soviet sculptural and memorial architecture. The most famous construction of this time, however, was Lenin's Mausoleum by Alexey Shchusev. Originally, it was a temporary wooden structure, topped by a pyramid, with two wings (for entry and exit). In 1930, it was replaced by the present stone building. The combination of dark red and black labradorite enhanced its slender, precise construction. The rapid development of technological processes and materials also influenced constructivist elements in structural design. During the construction of the Volkhov Hydroelectric Station (1918–26, architects O. Munts and V. Pokrovsky), the traditional outline on the window arches is still used (despite the use of concrete).

The Dnieper Hydroelectric Station (1927–32), built by a collective of architects led by Viktor Vesnin (1882–1950), features an innovative design with a curved dam and a rhythmic pattern of foundations. Creative unions played a large role in the architectural life of 1920s Russia. One of these was the Association of New Architects (ASNOVA), formed in 1923, which promoted the idea of synthesising architecture and other creative arts to give buildings an almost sculptural feeling. These buildings were intended to serve as visual points for orienting people in space. Members of ASNOVA also designed Moscow's first skyscrapers, none of which were realised at the time (1923–1926). Another innovation from post-revolutionary Russia was a new type of public building: the Workers' Club and the Palace of Culture. These became a new focus for architects, who used the visual expression of large elements combined with industrial motifs.

The most famous of these was the Zuev Workers' Club (1927–29) in Moscow by Ilya Golosov (1883–1945), whose composition relied on the dynamic contrast of simple shapes, planes, complete walls and glazed surfaces. Symbolic expression in construction was a feature in works designed by Konstantin Melnikov (1890–1974), notably the Rusakov Workers' Club (1927–1929) in Moscow. Visually, the building resembles part of a gear; each of the three cantilevered concrete "teeth" is a balcony of the main auditorium, which could be used individually or combined into a large theatre hall. The sharpness of its composition and the "transition" of its internal space (as Melnikov called it, a "tensed muscle") made it one of the most important examples of Soviet architecture.

POSTWAR SOVIET UNION

Stalinist architecture put a premium on conservative monumentalism. During the 1930s, rapid urbanisation was driven by Stalin's policies, and international competition to build the Palace of the Soviets in Moscow intensified. After 1945, the focus was on both rebuilding structures destroyed in World War II and erecting new ones: seven high-rise buildings were built at symbolic points in the Moscow area. The construction of Moscow University (1948–1953), by Lev Rudnev and associates, is particularly notable for its use of space. Another example is the Exhibition Centre in Moscow, built for the second All-Union Agricultural Exhibition (VSKhV) in 1954. This featured a series of pavilions, each decorated in a representative style.

Other well-known examples are the stations of the Moscow and Saint Petersburg Metros built during the 1940s and 1950s, famous for their extravagant design and vivid decoration. In general, Stalinist architecture changed the appearance of many post-war cities; much survives to this day in central avenues and public buildings. Following Stalin's death in 1953, social and political changes rocked the country, affecting construction priorities and architecture. In 1955, Nikita Khrushchev, faced with the slow pace of housing construction, called for drastic measures to accelerate the process. This involved developing new mass-production technology and removing "decorative extras" from buildings.

Special plants built in every major city began producing special concrete blocks with ready openings for doors and windows, which were used to build houses. These prefabricated blocks were brought from the factory ready-made and installed on the steel frame of a house. Houses built in this way were called blockhouses. All projects, such as houses, have been standardised and summarised in several series (for example, the II-32 series), which were built houses. Projects for a buyout included schools, kindergartens, and hospitals.

This effectively ended Stalinist architecture; however, the transition was slow. Most projects in the planning stage or under construction by 1955 were directly affected; the result, at times, was entire areas becoming aesthetically asymmetrical. A well-known example occurred in the postwar reconstruction of the Ukrainian capital, Kyiv, in which the planned Kreschatik avenue and its central square (Ploschad Kalinina) were to form a single rich space enclosed by Stalinist construction. As the buildings enclosing the latter were still under construction, the architects were forced to alter their plans, and the area remained unfinished until the early 1980s. In particular, Hotel Ukrayina, which was to crown the square with a look similar to one of Moscow's "Seven Sisters", was left as a solid shape without a top spire or any rich external decoration. Nevertheless, as the buildings became more square and simple, they brought with them a new style fueled by the Space Age: functionality.

The State Kremlin Palace is an homage to an earlier attempt to bridge rapidly changing styles dictated by the state. The Ostankino Tower, by Nikolai Nikitin, symbolises technological advances and the future. In addition to simpler buildings, the 1960s are remembered for massive housing plans. A typical project was developed using concrete panels to make a simple, five-story house. These Pyatietazhki became the dominant housing construction. Although rapidly built, their quality was poor compared with earlier housing; their monotonous appearance contributed to the grey and dull stereotype characteristic of socialist cities.

As the 1970s began, Leonid Brezhnev allowed architects more freedom; soon, housing of varied design was built. Blocks of flats were taller and more decorated; large mosaics on their sides became a feature. In nearly all cases, these were built not as standalone construction but as part of large estates (French: housing massif) which soon became a central feature of socialist cities. In contrast to the houses built in the 1950s–1960s, which had up to 5 floors, new residential buildings were taller and could have up to 9 floors, although houses with fewer floors continued to be built.

Each complex includes an extensive area with a walking path, a playground with swings, a sandbox for games, and parking areas, often supplemented by garages for cars, lined up separately from the residential buildings. This principle remains today. Public buildings were built with a variety of themes. Some (like the White House of Russia) made direct connections to earlier 1950s architecture, with a white marble-faced exterior and large bas-reliefs on the wings.

MODERN RUSSIA

As the Soviet Union fell apart, many of its projects were put on hold, and some were cancelled altogether. However, for the first time, there was no longer any control over what theme a building should have or how high it should be. As a result, with generally improving financial conditions, architecture grew rapidly. For the first time, modern skyscraper construction methods were implemented, resulting in the ambitious Moscow International Business Centre. In other cases, architects returned to successful designs of Stalinist architecture, resulting in buildings such as the Triumph Palace in Moscow. New Classical Architecture is also increasingly evident throughout modern Russia, with a large complex proposed for Saint Petersburg.

GEORGIAN AND ARMENIAN ARCHITECTURE

ARRANGED IN THIS SECTION AS THE COUNTRIES WERE FORMERLY PART OF THE SOVIET UNION.

GEORGIAN ARCHITECTURE

The architecture of Georgia refers to the styles of architecture found in Georgia. The country is exceptionally rich in architectural monuments. Characteristic features of Georgian architecture include monumentality, clear composition, strict proportions, a moderate use of decoration, and, above all, the harmonious interaction with nature.

Georgian architecture is influenced by several architectural styles, including those of

castles, towers, forts, palaces, and churches. The Svaneti fortifications and the castle town of Shatili in Khevsureti are among the finest examples of medieval Georgian castles.

Georgian medieval churches have a distinct character, though related to Armenian and Byzantine architecture, typically combining a conical dome raised high on a drum over a rectangular or cross-shaped lower structure. Often known as the "Georgian cross-dome style," this architectural style developed in Georgia during the 9th century; before then, most Georgian churches were basilicas.

Examples of the influence of Georgian ecclesiastic architecture can be found overseas in Bulgaria (the Backovo Monastery, built in 1083 by Georgian military commander Grigorii Bakuriani), in Greece (the Iviron Monastery, built by Georgians in the 10th century), and in Jerusalem (the Monastery of the Cross), built by Georgians in the 9th century.

Other architectural styles in Georgia include the Haussmannised Rustaveli Avenue in Tbilisi and that city's Old Town District.

History

The history of construction in Georgia can be traced back to the 5th-4th millennia BC, from Paleolithic to the Late Medieval times.  The oldest structures were made of stone and wood, and later of bricks.

7th century

This was the period of considerable rethinking of internal space in church design. The space was increased by introducing pillars that now support the tholobate, enabling experimentation with the walls and improving the interior's aesthetic perception. Traditional triangular niches by the sides of the apse also appear in this century. The first such example, which actually started new traditions, was the Tsumi church.

10th century

The first hints of the emerging 11-13th century architecture appear in this period in the Kurmodo Cathedral.

11th century

From the beginning of the century, Georgian architecture became exceptionally artistic and decorative. Facades acquire richly ornamented relief and arcading. Predominant ornamental motifs are inspired by nature – flowers, birds, wild and domestic mammals, and people. Characteristic of the eastern façade, axial two-ribbed vaults with ornamented windows and a cross above first appeared at Samtavasi and were later used until the 13th century. Many earlier-built churches, such as Svetitskhoveli and Manglisi cathedrals, were substantially rebuilt and decorated in the 11th century.

A major step in the general design was the introduction of the cross-in-square plan.

Examples of that period: Samtavisi Cathedral and the Samtavro Church.

12th century

Following traditions established in the 11th century, the focus was on increasing interior illumination to better observe frescoes. This is reflected in the creation of more windows in the dome and side walls.  Examples are the Ikorta Church.

13th century

Bell towers near the churches start to be constructed in the middle of the century. The.

The invasion of Khwarezmians and Mongols, and a strong earthquake of 1283 A.D., brought significant destruction. Meanwhile, the end of the 13th century is notable for the large-scale construction of monasteries, particularly in provinces less affected by invasions, like Samtskhe. The rulers of the Jakeli family succeeded in building one of the best in that period, and still largely preserved. Saba's Church, part of Sapara Monastery.   Following the Golden Age tradition, churches of that period are characterised by simpler, less expressive decorations. Facade architecture disappears, and decorations are made on smooth surfaces. Previously convex window decorations become immersed in the wall. Claddings are characteristically polychromatic. The dome appears heavier than in previous centuries, and its tholobate typically has twelve windows, though at Saint Saba's Church, the number increases to sixteen, eight true and eight false windows.

14th century

The decline, which began in the previous century under Mongol dominance, continued to be reflected in 14th-century architecture. The church dome tholobate becomes more stumpy. The facade decorations are limited to around the doors and windows. The examples include Gergeti Trinity Church, Zarzma and Chulevi Monastery.

Katshki Monastery from the 10th. Century A.D.

Svetitskhoveli Cathedral at Mtskheta, Georgia.1010-1029 A.D. by Georgian architect Arsukisdze.

Rike Park Concert Hall and Exhibition Centre in Tblisi. 

20th century

The two large tubular metallic structures at the north end of Rike Park were commissioned from Italian architect Massimiliano Fuksas during the Saakashvili era as a concert hall and an exhibition centre. After Mikheil Saakashvili lost power, funding dried up, and the project remains unfinished today, though the collective behind famous techno club Bassian managed to hold its first party here in 2013.

ARMENIAN ARCHITECTURE

Armenian architecture comprises architectural works with an aesthetic or historical connection to the Armenian people. It is difficult to situate this architectural style within precise geographical or chronological limits, but many of its monuments were created in the regions of historical Armenia, the Armenian Highlands.

The greatest achievement of Armenian architecture is generally agreed to be its medieval and seventh-century churches, though opinions differ on which aspects of these churches are most significant.

Common characteristics of Armenian architecture

Saint Hripsime Church, 618 A.D., with later alterations, is an important early church

Mediaeval Armenian architecture, and Armenian churches in particular, have several distinctive features, which some believe constitute the first national style in church building.

Common characteristics include:

• Pointed domes, reminiscent of the volcanic cone of Greater Ararat. The conical or semiconical radially segmented dome or cupola is mounted above vaulted ceilings on a cylindrical drum (usually polygonal on the outside, most often octagonal)
• The vertical emphasis of the whole structure, with the height often exceeding the length of a church^]
• Reinforcement of the verticality with tall, narrow windows
• Stone-vaulted ceilings
• Composed almost entirely of stone, usually volcanic tuffa or basalt.
• A composite roof composed of finely cut tuff shingles
• Frescoes and carvings, if present, are usually ornate and include swirling, intertwining grapevines and foliage.
• Heavy use of tall structural arches, both for supporting the cupola as part of the drum, the vaulted ceiling, and the vertical walls.
• Roofs intersecting to support the dome, both in basilicas and centrally planned churches.
• Sculptural decoration of external walls, including figures

Classification of Armenian churches

Within the bounds of the aforementioned common characteristics, individual churches display considerable variation, which may reflect time, place, and the creativity of their designers. Toros Toramanian distinguished the following classical styles while studying these variations in the early 20th century:

The Classical Styles of Armenian Architecture According to Toros Toromanian 

Armenian nomenclature

Basilica Bazilik (Բազիլիկ)

Ererouk Domed Basilica Gmbetakir bazilik(Գմբեթակիր բազիլիկ)

Tekor Basilica Cruciform Etchmiadznatip (Էջմիածնատիպ; literally "Etchmiadzin-type)

Etchmiadzin Cathedral Vertical-emphasis rectangularOughghagitz karankiun(Ուղղագիծ քառանկյուն)

Saint Gayane Church Radial Sharavighayin (Շառավիղային)

Saint Hripsime Circular Zvartnotsatip (Zvarnots type)  (Զվարթնոց տեսակ)

Armenian architecture, as it originates in an earthquake-prone region, tends to be built with this hazard in mind. Armenian buildings tend to be rather low-slung and thick-walled. Armenia has abundant stone resources and relatively few forests, so stone was nearly always used for large buildings. Small buildings and most residential buildings were normally constructed of lighter materials, and hardly any early examples survive, as at the abandoned medieval capital of Ani.

The 7th-century cathedral of Zvarnots features a beautiful vine-scroll motif carving.

The stone used in buildings is typically quarried from the same location to give the structure a uniform colour. When different-colored stones are used, they are often intentionally contrasted in a striped or checkerboard pattern.  Powder made from ground stone of the same type was often applied along the joints of the tuff slabs to give buildings a seamless appearance.  Unlike the Romans or Syrians, who were building at the same time, Armenians never used wood or brick when building large structures.

Armenian architecture uses concrete to build sturdy buildings. It is a mixture of lime mortar, broken tuff, and rocks around which forms a core against which thin slabs of tuff are arranged in brickwork fashion. As the wet mortar dries, it forms a strong, concrete-like mass sealed to the tuff, and, due to the tuff's properties, it becomes harder over time. Initially, almost no core was used in the construction of churches; stone blocks were simply sealed together. But as architects saw that mortar cores withstood tremors, the size of the cores expanded. Frescoes of marble or another stone were often affixed to the side of these buildings, usually at a later date.

History of Armenian architecture

The gradual development of Armenian architecture.

Pre-Christian Armenia

During the third millennium B.C., prehistoric Armenian architecture was already distinctive. The most common feature was its groundwork, which incorporated many geometrical shapes, ultimately forming a cell shape. An example of such architecture can be found in Kultepe, near Nakhchivan. These buildings were approximately 6–7 metres wide and about 5 metres high.

Urban architectural traditions and other forms of art in the years before Christ continued to develop and later came to be influenced by Greco-Roman art. Urartian architecture is known for its use of intricately cut rocks, used as foundations for mud brick buildings, usually constructed in a compact manner (such as in Erebuni)

The Temple of Garni is the only standing Greco-Roman building in Armenia

Urartian temples had massive stone walls at lower levels and a relatively small interior space, usually square, and rose high; they were generally placed at the highest point of a site. Higher levels were in mud brick, which has not survived, and it is not fully clear how they appeared. The late Temple of Garni of the 1st century AD, in a fully Hellenistic style, is the only pagan monument left in any sort of complete state in Armenia, as many others were destroyed or converted to Christian places of worship under Tiridates III of Armenia.  Garni includes local elements of sacred numerology and geometry. The temple has a column-to-intercolumn ratio of 1/3 (1 is the primary number of the universe, and 3 is the holiest of all numbers, as it represents the Greco-Roman triad: Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva). Aside from its aesthetic beauty, Garni's design can be seen as a reaffirmation of the universal laws that govern man's destiny. The angles, number of columns, and dimensions were carefully crafted; Armenian pagans sought to appease the gods and protect humanity from their wrath. This sacred geometry is evident in the entire temple. To the people who created it, it was the perfect embodiment of their communion with the universe. Note that although sacred geometry was mostly used in religious buildings, secular buildings adopted some aspects of it.

10th century BC – 1st century BC

• Horom Citadel, Bronze Age
• Haykaberd, 1st millennium B.C.
• Musasir, 825 B.C
• The Van Citadel, 9th century B.C.
• Erebuni Fortress, 782 B.C.
• Odzaberd, 735–713 B.C.
• Teishebaini, Between 650 and 600 B.C.
• Argishtikhinilli, 8th and 6th centuries B.C.
• Kumayri historic district, 5th century B.C.
• Armavir, 331 B.C. (originally 8th century B.C.)
• Artaxata, 176 B.C.
• Tigranakert of Artsakh, 2nd–1st century B.C.
• Mount Nemrut, 1st century B.C.

Christian Armenia

Late-medieval Armenian Khachkars from Julfa, Azerbaijan. They were removed from the Julfa graveyard before its destruction and are now on display within the precincts of Etchmiadzin in Armenia.

The establishment of Christianity as Armenia's official religion in 301 A.D. enabled new developments in Armenian architecture, while preserving older traditions.^[6]In fact, it would be almost impossible to find any religion that rose completely on its own without borrowing some traditions from the past. Exploring Armenian churches is critical to our understanding of Medieval Armenia. Beyond that, the Armenian churches provide us with a general picture of the Christian East at a time when eyewitness accounts were exceedingly rare. In their messages of authenticity and legitimacy, the churches shaped and preserved public memory, negotiating among diverse linguistic, religious, political, and ethnic groups.

The first Armenian churches were built on the orders of Saint Gregory the Illuminator and were often built on top of pagan temples, and imitated some aspects of Armenian pre-Christian architecture.

Periods in Armenian architecture

Classical and Medieval Armenian architecture is divided into four separate periods

The formative period

The first Armenian churches were built between the 4th and 7th centuries, beginning with Armenia's conversion to Christianity and ending with the Arab invasion of Armenia. The early churches were mostly simple basilicas, but some had side apses. By the 5th century, the typical cupola cone in the centre had become widely used. By the 7th century, centrally planned churches had been built, and a more complex, niched buttress and radiating Hrip'simé style had emerged. By the time of the Arab invasion, most of what we now know as classical Armenian architecture had formed.

Bagratid revival

External reliefs of David and Goliath on the 10th-century Cathedral of Akdamar.

From the 9th to the 11th century, Armenian architecture underwent a revival under the patronage of the Bagratid dynasty, with much building in the area around Lake Van, featuring both traditional styles and new innovations. Ornately carved Armenian khachkars were developed during this time.^[7]Many new cities and churches were built during this time, including a new capital at Lake Van and a new Cathedral on Akdamar Island to match. The Cathedral of Ani was also completed during this dynasty. It was during this time that the first major monasteries, such as Haghpata and Haritchavank, were built. This period ended with the Seljuk invasion.

Monasteries flourishing

The dome of the 13th-century Saint Gregory of Tigran Honents church is a beautiful example of the style.

From the 12th to the 14th century, under the Zakarid dynasty, Armenia saw an explosion in the number of monasteries built, including Saghmosavank, Akhtala, Kaymakli, Kecharis, and Makaravank. Monasteries were institutes of learning, and much of medieval Armenian literature was written during this time period. The invasion of Timurlane and the destruction of Cilician Armenia ended architectural progression for another 250 years.

Seventeenth century

The last great period in classic Armenian construction was under the Iranian Safavid Shahs, under which several new churches were built, usually at existing holy sites such as Etchmiadzin, as well as in diaspora communities like New Julfa.

Nineteenth century

Armenian architecture underwent significant development during the 19th century, when the Russians entered Eastern Armenia. Several architectural masterpieces were built in the Kumayri historic district of Alexandropol and Yerevan, as well as in Kars, which is now a part of the Republic of Turkey.

The Armenian buildings of that time were mainly made of black tuffa, which gave them a black colour.

Modern times

One of the most prolific architects of Armenian architectural monuments in the 20th century was Baghdasar Arzoumanian.  Based in Yerevan, Armenia, he was the author of numerous civil and church buildings, as well as other designs.

Devastation of Armenian architecture

As a result of Anti-Armenianism, relics of Armenia's past, such as churches, cemeteries, and khachkars, in neighbouring countries have been subject to devastation. In certain cases, such as in Turkey or Azerbaijan, this had been as a result of national campaigns to eradicate traces of the Armenian people to thwart any potential claims by the Armenian state.

The largest collection in the world was formerly located at the ruins of Old Jughain Nachichevan (today's Azerbaijan). Reports and photographs from observers in Iranian territory emerged at the end of 2005 showing Azeri soldiers making deliberate attempts to destroy the gravestones. More recent photographs have revealed that the entire graveyard has been obliterated and a military training ground has been constructed on the site.

Due to the endless development and neglect, the historical architecture of Yerevan is often desecrated or, in some cases, demolished.  One of the most noticeable cases was the creation of Northern Avenue in Yerevan, as per Alexander Tamanian's original plans, which destroyed the area's rich architectural heritage.  There are also plans to demolish the historical district of Noragyugh to build a business centre called "New Yerevan".

Erebuni Fortress ruins 782 B.C.

Roman Temple Ruin at Garni 77 A.D.

Vagharshapat church Shoghagat Armenia 301-303 A.D.

Etchmiadzin Cathedral 483-484 A.D.

Hripsime Cathedral 618 A.D.

Zvarnots Cathedral was built between 643 and 652 AD

Akdamar Cathedral on Lake Van 915-921 A.D.

Kars, Church of the Holy Apostles 930-942 A.,D.

Cathedral at Ani 1001 A.D.

Cathedral at Ani Interior 1001 A.D.

Church of Tigran Honents at Ani 1215 A.D.